Chemotherapy and Radiotherapy for Cancer of the Colon

If you have cancer of the colon or rectum, your doctor will probably talk to you about various treatment options. Surgery to remove the tumor is usually the main treatment for colon and rectal cancer. Chemotherapy (treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells) is often used when there is a risk that the colon or rectal cancer will come back. Radiotherapy (treatment with x-rays that kill cancer cells) may be used either before or after surgery for rectal cancer. Sometimes both radiotherapy and chemotherapy are used after surgery.

Chemotherapy combo outcomes differ for aged, younger colon cancer patients
Jeffrey Meyerhardt, MD, MPH, co-investigator on the trial

Jeffrey Meyerhardt, MD, MPH, co-investigator on the trial.

The combination of chemotherapies 5FU and oxaliplatin compared to 5FU alone after surgery for colon cancer decreases colon cancer recurrence and promotes longer survival for patients under 70 — but not for those who are older, according to Mayo Clinic and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute scientists who will present their findings at the American Society of Clinical Oncology's (ASCO) annual meeting in Orlando, Fla.

Our bodies are made up of billions of cells that grow, divide, and then die in a predictable manner. Cancer occurs when something goes wrong with this system, causing uncontrolled cell division and growth. Chemotherapy literally means "chemical treatment" and is one way to help the body kill off cancer cells and try to keep them from dividing (making more of themselves).

The reason people tend to lose their hair during chemotherapy is that many chemo drugs don't discriminate: They target all cells that divide rapidly. Our hair falls out all the time. We just don't usually notice because our hair cells reproduce quickly and make more to replace what we've lost. But when a chemo drug reduces rapid cell division across the board, the "good" cells end up taking one for the team.

Cancer Colon Information, Research, and Treatment for all Types

The colon, in four sections, makes up the majority of the 5-foot length of the large intestine. In the alimentary canal (the path that food follows through your body), the colon follows the small intestine and comes before the rectum. The colon is responsible for absorbing water, vitamins, and minerals from the intestinal contents and conserving them. It also mixes the intestinal contents, forms stools, and rids the body of undigested material.

Tumors of the colon and rectum are growths arising from the inner wall of the large intestine. Benign tumors of the large intestine are called polyps. Malignant tumors of the large intestine are called cancers. Benign polyps do not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body. Benign polyps can be easily removed during colonoscopy and are not life-threatening. If benign polyps are not removed from the large intestine, they can become malignant (cancerous) over time. Most of the cancers of the large intestine are believed to have developed from polyps. Cancer of the colon and rectum (also referred to as colorectal cancer) can invade and damage adjacent tissues and organs. Cancer cells can also break away and spread to other parts of the body (such as liver and lung) where new tumors form. The spread of colon cancer to distant organs is called metastasis of the colon cancer.

Colon cancer usually forms from the formation of polyps in the various parts of the colon, or the large bowel. Polyps are soft tissues which can become malignant over time. There are various kinds of colon cancer related to heredity, and most of tehm are caused by colonic polyps. Adenomatous Polyposis, as well the Gardner’s syndrome, is considered one of the more common types of this colon cancer.

Causes

In general, cancer occurs when healthy cells become altered. Healthy cells grow and divide in an orderly way to keep your body functioning normally. But sometimes this growth gets out of control — cells continue dividing even when new cells aren't needed. In the colon and rectum, this exaggerated growth may cause precancerous cells to form in the lining of your intestine. Over a long period of time — spanning up to several years — some of these areas of abnormal cells may become cancerous. In later stages of the disease, colon cancer may penetrate the colon walls and spread (metastasize) to nearby lymph nodes or other organs. As with most cancers, the exact cause for colon cancer is unknown.

Several types of colon polyps

Several types of colon polyps exist. Among the most common are:

• Adenomas. These polyps have the potential to become cancerous and are usually removed during screening tests such as flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy.
• Hyperplastic polyps. These polyps are rarely, if ever, a risk factor for colorectal cancer.
• Inflammatory polyps. These polyps may follow a bout of ulcerative colitis. Some inflammatory polyps may become cancerous, so having ulcerative colitis increases your overall risk of colon cancer.

Hepatitis C Definition,Symptoms Causes and Treatment

Hepatitis C is one of six identified hepatitis viruses — the others are A, B, D, E and G. All cause the liver to become inflamed, which interferes with its ability to function. Hepatitis C is generally considered to be among the most serious of these viruses.

Infants born to mothers known to carry hepatitis B can be treated with antibodies to the hepatitis B virus (hepatitis B immune globulin or HBIg). When given with the vaccine within twelve hours of birth, the risk of acquiring hepatitis B is reduced 95%. This treatment allows a mother to safely breastfeed her child.

Causes

Hepatitis C infection is caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). People who may be at risk for hepatitis C are those who:

• Have unprotected sexual contact with a person who has hepatitis C
• Have regular contact with blood at work (for instance, as a health care worker)
• Have been on long-term kidney dialysis
  
• Inject street drugs or share a needle with someone who has hepatitis C
• Share personal items such as toothbrushes and razors with someone who has hepatitis C
• Received blood, blood products, or solid organs from a donor who has hepatitis C
  
• Were born to a hepatitis C-infected mother

Sypmtoms

Early-stage signs and symptoms
Commonly, hepatitis C infection produces no signs or symptoms during its earliest stages. When it does, they're generally mild and flu-like and may include:

* Slight fatigue
* Nausea or poor appetite
* Muscle and joint pains
* Tenderness in the area of your liver

Later stage signs and symptoms
Even if you develop chronic hepatitis from the hepatitis C virus, you may have few, if any, symptoms. In many cases, signs and symptoms may not appear for decades. Sometimes, though, you may experience one or more of the following:

* Fatigue
* Lack of appetite
* Nausea and vomiting
* Persistent or recurring yellowing of your skin and eyes (jaundice)
* Low-grade fever

Hepatitis C can cause damage to your liver, even if you don't have symptoms. You're also able to pass the virus to others without having any symptoms yourself. That's why it's important to be tested if you think you've been exposed to hepatitis C or if you engage in behavior that puts you at risk.

Treatment

There is a very small chance of clearing the virus spontaneously in chronic HCV carriers (0.5 to 0.74% per year),however, the majority of patients with chronic hepatitis C will not clear it without treatment.

Current treatment is a combination of pegylated interferon alpha (brand names Pegasys and PEG-Intron) and the antiviral drug ribavirin for a period of 24 or 48 weeks, depending on genotype. Indications for treatment include patients with proven hepatitis C virus infection and persistent abnormal liver function tests. Sustained cure rates (sustained viral response) of 75% or better occur in people with genotypes HCV 2 and 3 in 24 weeks of treatment, about 50% in those with genotype 1 with 48 weeks of treatment and 65% for those with genotype 4 in 48 weeks of treatment. About 80% of hepatitis C patients in the United States have genotype 1. Genotype 4 is more common in the Middle East and Africa. Should treatment with pegylated interferon + ribavirin not return a 2-log viral reduction or complete clearance of RNA (termed early virological response) after 12 weeks for genotype 1, the chance of treatment success is less than 1%. Early virological response is typically not tested for in non-genotype 1 patients, as the chances of attaining it are greater than 90%. The mechanism of action is not entirely clear, because even patients who appear to have had a sustained virological response still have actively replicating virus in their liver and peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

The evidence for treatment in genotype 6 disease is currently sparse, and the evidence that exists is for 48 weeks of treatment at the same doses as are used for genotype 1 disease.[23] Physicians considering shorter durations of treatment (e.g., 24 weeks) should do so within the context of a clinical trial.

Treatment during the acute infection phase has much higher success rates (greater than 90%) with a shorter duration of treatment; however, this must be balanced against the 15-40% chance of spontaneous clearance without treatment (see Acute Hepatitis C section above).

Those with low initial viral loads respond much better to treatment than those with higher viral loads (greater than 400,000 IU/mL). Current combination therapy is usually supervised by physicians in the fields of gastroenterology, hepatology or infectious disease.

Hepatitis A Definition,symptomps,Causes and Treatments

Hepatitis A virus was a common childhood infection in the early 20th Century but now in the 21st century it is an unusual infection in the UK. It is normally spread by the faecal-oral route but can also be spread occasionally through blood. Infection is prevented by good hygiene, especially hand washing, safe drinking water and food. Vaccination, passive or active, can be used to prevent groups at high risk including people who have been in contact with someone else who has the infection, travellers to countries where the infection is common, and other groups such as injecting drug users.

Hepatitis is a general term that means inflammation of the liver. Inflammation of the liver can result from infection, from exposure to alcohol, certain medications, chemicals, or poisons, or from a disorder of the immune system.

Hepatitis A refers to liver inflammation caused by infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). HAV is one of several viruses that can cause hepatitis and is one of the 3 most common hepatitis viruses in the United States. The other 2 are hepatitis B and hepatitis C.

How is hepatitis A spread?

Hepatitis A is typically spread through contact with infected feces. You can get infected through close contact with an infected person (for example, changing a diaper or having sexual contact), even if that person does not have any symptoms. In fact, hepatitis A is most contagious before symptoms appear. You can also get infected by eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water. The virus can live on hands, in water and in soil. Hepatitis A is common in developing countries.

How is hepatitis A treated?

There is no specific medicine to treat or cure hepatitis A. If you have the virus, you should get plenty of rest, eat a balanced diet and avoid alcohol and acetaminophen (one brand: Tylenol). Both alcohol and medicines like acetaminophen are broken down by the liver and may increase the speed of liver damage in people who have hepatitis.

Talk with your doctor about any other over-the-counter medicines you are taking, as they may need to be changed or stopped while you have the virus.


How can I keep from getting hepatitis A?

Ask your doctor about the hepatitis A vaccine. The shot is safe for anyone over 2 years of age and can provide protection for up to 20 years.

Wash your hands with soap and warm water before and after cooking, after using the bathroom and after changing diapers.

Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly before eating and avoid raw or undercooked meat and fish.

If you come into contact with someone who has hepatitis A and you have never had the virus or the vaccine, you should see your doctor right away. He or she can give you a shot that will help keep you from getting sick.

Diabetes Melitus Definition,Symtomps,Causes and Treatments

DEFINITION OF DIABETES MELITUS

Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the pancreas no longer produces enough insulin or cells stop responding to the insulin that is produced, so that glucose in the blood cannot be absorbed into the cells of the body. Symptoms include frequent urination, lethargy, excessive thirst, and hunger. The treatment includes changes in diet, oral medications, and in some cases, daily injections of insulin.
Description
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease that causes serious health complications including renal (kidney) failure, heart disease, stroke, and blindness. Approximately 17 million Americans have diabetes. Unfortunately, as many as one-half are unaware they have it.
Background
Every cell in the human body needs energy in order to function. The body's primary energy source is glucose, a simple sugar resulting from the digestion of foods containing carbohydrates (sugars and starches). Glucose from the digested food circulates in the blood as a ready energy source for any cells that need it. Insulin is a hormone or chemical produced by cells in the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach. Insulin bonds to a receptor site on the outside of cell and acts like a key to open a doorway into the cell through which glucose can enter. Some of the glucose can be converted to concentrated energy sources like glycogen or fatty acids and saved for later use. When there is not enough insulin produced or when the doorway no longer recognizes the insulin key, glucose stays in the blood rather entering the cells.
The body will attempt to dilute the high level of glucose in the blood, a condition called hyperglycemia, by drawing water out of the cells and into the bloodstream in an effort to dilute the sugar and excrete it in the urine. It is not unusual for people with undiagnosed diabetes to be constantly thirsty, drink large quantities of water, and urinate frequently as their bodies try to get rid of the extra glucose. This creates high levels of glucose in the urine.
At the same time that the body is trying to get rid of glucose from the blood, the cells are starving for glucose and sending signals to the body to eat more food, thus making patients extremely hungry. To provide energy for the starving cells, the body also tries to convert fats and proteins to glucose. The breakdown of fats and proteins for energy causes acid compounds called ketones to form in the blood. Ketones also will be excreted in the urine. As ketones build up in the blood, a condition called ketoacidosis can occur. This condition can be life threatening if left untreated, leading to coma and death.

THE CAUSES OF DIABETES MELITUS
The pancreas secretes exocrine (digestive) hormones, as well as the endocrine glucose-controlling hormones insulin and glucagon. Depending on the secretion of these hormones, glucose is either stored in a particular section of the liver or absorbed by the body's cells to generate heat and vital energy.

Diabetes manifests when:

1. The insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas fail to produce enough insulin.

2. The liver becomes too weak to provide adequate storage space for glucose. The vitality of the liver may be weakened by chronic indigestion, constipation (here the stool usually turns into pellets), mental exertion with little or no physical exercise, alcohol and other intoxicants, and excessive seminal waste.

3. Less commonly, the body's muscle cells fail to absorb glucose from the blood.

For whatever reason, the result is an abnormally high level of glucose in the blood and the consequent disturbance of all the other body systems.

TREATMENT
To compensate for the high blood sugar levels, the body tries to expel the excess glucose in the urine. This leads to a high urine flow and loss of body water. That's why sufferers of diabetes often have a continuous thirst. Sugar expelled with the urine in large quantities gradually reduces the vitality of the patient. Insulin may increase the vital energy of the body but can never cure the disease.

There is currently no cure for diabetes. The condition, however, can be managed so that patients can live a relatively normal life. Treatment of diabetes focuses on two goals: keeping blood glucose within normal range and preventing the development of long-term complications. Careful monitoring of diet, exercise, and blood glucose levels are as important as the use of insulin or oral medications in preventing complications of diabetes. In 2003, the American Diabetes Association updated its Standards of Care for the management of diabetes. These standards help manage health care providers in the most recent recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of the disease.

Hepatitis B Definition,Symptoms Causes and Treatment

Hepatitis B is a viral infection that attacks the liver and can cause both acute and chronic disease.

The virus is transmitted through contact with the blood or other body fluids of an infected person - not through casual contact. The virus can be transmitted whenever any of these bodily fluids come in contact with the broken skin or a mucous membrane (in the mouth, genital organs, or rectum) of an uninfected person.

Originally known as "serum hepatitis",the disease has caused epidemics in parts of Asia and Africa, and it is endemic in China. About a third of the world's population, more than 2 billion people, have been infected with the hepatitis B virus. This includes 350 million chronic carriers of the virus.Transmission of hepatitis B virus results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood.

Hepatitis B is a potentially life-threatening liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus. It is a major global health problem and the most serious type of viral hepatitis. It can cause chronic liver disease and puts people at high risk of death from cirrhosis of the liver and liver cancer.

Causes

Having hepatitis means that your liver has become inflamed. Hepatitis can be caused by a number of things including:

• drinking too much alcohol (the most common cause of liver damage)

• a virus infection, such as hepatitis B

• the body’s own immune system – a liver disease called autoimmune hepatitis

• the side effects of some drugs and chemicals.

Symptomps

Hepatitis B virus can cause an acute illness with symptoms that last several weeks, including yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice), dark urine, extreme fatigue, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain. People can take several months to a year to recover from the symptoms. HBV can also cause a chronic liver infection that can later develop into cirrhosis of the liver or liver cancer.

The hepatitis B virus is transmitted through contact with the blood and body fluids of someone who is infected. You're especially at risk if you are an intravenous (IV) drug user who shares needles or other paraphernalia, have unprotected sexual contact with an infected partner, or were born in or travel to parts of the world where hepatitis B is widespread. In addition, women with HBV can pass the infection to their babies during childbirth.

Vaccine

The hepatitis B vaccine should be given to anyone 18 years of age or younger who has not previously received it. Adoptees from countries where HBV infection is common should be tested for hepatitis B infection and vaccinated if not immune.

The hepatitis B vaccine is given as a series of three injections in the upper arm or leg.

• The time between the first and second shot should be at least 1 month.

• The time between the second and third shots should be at least 2 months. Ideally, it should be 4 months or more.

• At least 4 months should go by between the first and third shots.

Treatment

Acute hepatitis B infection does not usually require treatment because most adults clear the infection spontaneously.Early antiviral treatment may only be required in fewer than 1% of patients, whose infection takes a very aggressive course ("fulminant hepatitis") or who are immunocompromised. On the other hand, treatment of chronic infection may be necessary to reduce the risk of cirrhosis and liver cancer. Chronically infected individuals with persistently elevated serum alanine aminotransferase, a marker of liver damage, and HBV DNA levels are candidates for therapy.

Although none of the available drugs can clear the infection, they can stop the virus from replicating, and minimize liver damage such as cirrhosis and liver cancer. Currently, there are seven medications licensed for treatment of hepatitis B infection in the United States. These include antiviral drugs lamivudine (Epivir), adefovir (Hepsera), tenofovir (Viread), telbivudine (Tyzeka) and entecavir (Baraclude) and the two immune system modulators interferon alpha-2a and pegylated interferon alfa-2a (Pegasys). The use of interferon, which requires injections daily or thrice weekly, has been supplanted by long-acting pegylated interferon, which is injected only once weekly.[37] However, some individuals are much more likely to respond than others and this might be because of the genotype of the infecting virus or the patient's heredity. The treatment works by reducing the viral load, (the amount of virus particles as measured in the blood), which in turn reduces viral replication in the liver.

Definition of Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A is acute infectious disease in the liver caused by hepatitis A virus, most often transmitted by fecal-oral route via food or drinking water. hepatitis A causes liver inflammation that affects your ability to function.
Hepatitis A virus infection can cause various diseases of the light through the non-specific nausea and vomiting to hepatitis (liver inflammation). Symptoms of severe disease that, in general, their parents when they are infected. Hepatitis A infection in the liver is a very contagious infection caused by the hepatitis A virus. Although not usually as serious as the type of hepatitis virus, Each year, about 10 million people worldwide infected with the virus. Hepatitis A is usually an acute (short term) infection, and though the symptoms can be unpleasant it is very rarely serious.

Hepatitis A can occur at any age. The incubation period (the time from coming into contact with the virus to developing the infection) is approximately between two and six weeks.

Mild cases of hepatitis A does not require treatment, and most people who become infected recover completely with no permanent liver damage. Unlike hepatitis B and C, hepatitis A does not develop into chronic hepatitis or cirrhosis - both potentially fatal conditions.

* Wash hands thoroughly after using the toilet. Scrub vigorously for at least 10 seconds, and rinse well. If possible, dry your hands with a towel once.

Receive Immune globulin or a hepatitis vaccine. One way to protect yourself is to receive an injection of Immune globulin - a preparation of antibodies - or a hepatitis vaccine can prevent Hepatitis A pinularan